Three dimensional nanofabrication using surface forces

We describe strategies to curve, rotate, align, and bond precisely patterned two-dimensional (2D) nanoscale panels using forces derived from a minimization of surface area of liquefying or coalescing metallic grains. We demonstrate the utility of this approach by discussing variations in template size, patterns, and material composition. The strategy provides a solution path to overcome the limitation of inherently 2D lithographic processes by transforming 2D templates into mechanically robust and precisely patterned nanoscale curved structures and polyhedra with considerable versatility in material composition.