Task-unrelated thought during educational activities: A meta-analysis of its occurrence and relationship with learning

The “costs” of task-unrelated thought (often referred to as mind-wandering) on performance in educational contexts have received growing theoretical and empirical attention in the last decade. Published articles on task-unrelated thought in educational contexts usually point out two important claims: 1) that task-unrelated thought occurs often during learning and 2) that task-unrelated thought shares a negative relationship with learning outcomes. However, the corresponding rates and effect sizes reported in the literature have been quite variable to date. We thus adopted a multi-level meta-analytic approach in order to provide baseline metrics for the frequency of task-unrelated thought in educational contexts and its relationship with learning outcomes across different learning tasks and assessments. Our analysis suggests that students are off-task about 30% of the time during educationally relevant activities, and the average relationship between task-unrelated thought and learning outcomes was in line with a small-to-medium practical effect, −0.27. No differences were observed between learning tasks and various moderators. The average rates and correlation values reported in this meta-analysis can be used as a benchmark for future research aiming to assess task-unrelated thought in education.