Students, teachers, and schools as sources of variability, integrity, and sustainability in implementing progress monitoring

A three-level variance decomposition analysis was used to examine The sources of variability in implementation of a technology-enhanced progress monitoring system within each year of a 2-year study using a randomizedcontrolled design. We show that results of technology-enhanced progress monitoring are not necessarily a measure of student achievement, but something under the more immediate control of the teacher. Teachers' implementation practices are more stable than students across years in implementation of progress monitoring, although even controlling for teacher effects, we were able to establish a relationship between student-level implementation and outcomes. This result is important, as it emphasizes that despite strong teacher effects, there is more than a teacher-level phenomenon occurring in accounting for associations between progress monitoring implementation and test score gains.