Characterization of silver ion dissolution from silver nanoparticles using fluorous-phase ion-selective electrodes and assessment of resultant toxicity to shewanella oneidensis

Silver nanoparticle (Ag NP) dissolution, or ionization from Ag(0) to Ag⁺, is an important determinant of the nanoparticles' toxicity as silver ions are considered to be a major contributor to Ag NP cytotoxicity. In this work, we characterize ion dissolution from Ag NPs using a selective and dynamic technique, Ag⁺-selective electrodes (ISEs) with ionophore-doped fluorous sensing membranes. We examined dissolution of various concentrations of Ag NPs (0.3, 3, and 15 μg mL⁻¹) in water and bacterial growth medium in real-time. A decrease in the concentration of free Ag⁺ was observed as a result of complexation with components of the growth medium. Overall, a greater percentage of the nanoparticles dissolve in growth medium than water (28% vs. 13%). Individual chemical components of the growth medium were examined for their complexation capability, and it was determined that ammonia-silver complexes are the predominant species of dissolved Ag⁺, with 8.9% occurring as AgNH₃⁺, 87.8% occurring as Ag(NH₃)₂⁺, and only 3.3% occurring as free Ag⁺. After characterizing Ag NP dissolution in growth medium, the viability and growth of Shewanella oneidensis, a ubiquitous beneficial bacterium, were monitored upon exposure to the known in situ levels of Ag⁺ and Ag NPs. Ag⁺ and Ag NPs both caused a dose-dependent decrease in bacterial viability and growth rate, though the growth and viability changes upon Ag NP exposure did not correlate with the ISE-measured Ag⁺. Using ISEs to monitor Ag NP dissolution in the presence of S. oneidensis revealed that the presence of the organisms influences the nanoparticle dissolution profile, a result not previously reported that has significant implications for understanding nanotoxicity. This work lays the foundation for the use of fluorous-phase ISEs as an in situ nanoparticle characterization tool, addressing a critical technology gap in the field of nanoparticle toxicology.