A comparison of perceived control beliefs between Chinese and American students

This study examines the developmental patterns of perceived control beliefs among a total of 1720 urban Chinese, rural Chinese, and American students in second through sixth grade. Children's perceived control beliefs were measured with the Revised Control, Agency, and Means-end Interview (CAMI). The results show that the latent structures of perceived control beliefs were comparable among the three groups of students. The increase in grade level was more important than cultural differences in the development of agency and global control expectancy beliefs. However, there was no evidence that the increase in grade level was more important than cultural differences in the development of means-end beliefs. The developmental patterns of global control expectancy and agency beliefs were similar between Chinese and American students across the elementary school years. The correlations between global control expectancy and the dimensions of agency beliefs and school performance were stronger than those between the dimensions of means-end beliefs and school performance among the three groups of students. Also, the relationships between the dimensions of perceived control beliefs and performance were stronger in language arts than in math. The unique features of the perceptions of "luck", "ability", and "effort" among Chinese students were also discussed in terms of the alternative bases of philosophy and religion, the nature of school feedback, and the likelihood of quality experiences in parent-child mediated interactions.